American History Research Articles

Review: New Mexico’s Moses: Reies López Tijerina and the Religious Origins of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement, by Ramón A. Gutiérrez

Review: <i>New Mexico’s Moses: Reies López Tijerina and the Religious Origins of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement</i>, by Ramón A. Gutiérrez

Another Civil War in America? Comparing the Social Psychology of the United States of the 1850s to Today

Scholars warn that another American civil war is increasingly plausible, if still unlikely; professional political commentators express greater concerns. This study examines the likelihood of another U.S. civil war by comparing perspectives of the 1850s with those of today by using a negative social capital framework as the analytic lens. The analysis finds striking similarities between the two periods. Yet, civil war is a relatively rare phenomenon in developed countries, and the analysis also points to contemporary mitigating examples. At least for the foreseeable future, more likely are trajectories moving toward other types of social unrest short of civil war: ongoing civil strife, additional insurrections, decades-long intraregional political gridlock causing widespread administrative dysfunction, and even a failure to relinquish power. The negative social psychology has already had an extraordinary impact on public administration and is unlikely to decrease in the near term; it may yet increase exponentially as it did in the 1860s.

"To the Manor Born"

Matthew Speiser’s To The Manor Born is bold, but bold by the attempt alone. Speiser’s history where the American Civil War never ends is a work of fiction whose high-water mark is its own synopsis. Of course, same as anything in the world of imagination, Speiser’s America could have conceivably existed.

The Governor's Pawns: Hostages and Hostage-Taking in Civil War West Virginia

Throughout the American Civil War, both Union and Confederate forces engaged in guerrilla warfare throughout the border states. With the emergence of this activity, non-combatants often found themselves as the principal targets; particularly in regard to hostage-taking. Both sides engaged in this practice for a variety of reasons, however, for the newly formed state of West Virginia, the taking of hostages became crucial for the survival of the state. In The Governor’s Pawn, Randall S. Gooden—native of West Virginia and professor of history at Clayton State University—illustrates the unique hostage policy adopted by West Virginia and how it proved vital in the state’s experience in the Civil War.

War, Politics, and Change

Historians have long documented the ways in which war and politics bring about social, economic, and cultural change. Nowhere is this more evident than during the American Civil War and Reconstruction. The war devastated the South; it upended the system of chattel slavery and instigated remarkable transformations to the region’s demographics, political, and economic structures. Reconstruction emerged out of the ashes of war. This critical and hotly debated period redefined U.S. citizenship, expanded suffrage rights, and altered the relationship between the federal government and the states. Many of the lofty goals of Reconstruction, however, fell short as southern “Redeemers” regained political power and enshrined a new system of white supremacy. While many of the changes during this era were structural, individuals also experienced personal metamorphoses. Each of the manuscripts reviewed in this issue explore these various transformations, shedding new light on military command and contingency, national and regional politics, and individual struggles as the American nation navigated disorienting change during these fateful years.

A Brief Moment in the Sun: Francis Cardozo and Reconstruction in South Carolina

Neil Kinghan offers an intriguing biography of Francis Cardozo, the first African American to hold statewide office after the Civil War. As secretary of state, and later treasurer of South Carolina, Kinghan reevaluates Cardozo’s historical significance as an instrumental figure in the postwar reconstruction of the state. The primary aim of this book is to “give [Cardozo] the recognition he deserves and restore his place in African American history of the nineteenth century.” In so doing, Kinghan addresses the “still inadequate recognition of the achievements of the period and almost none of the contribution of Francis Cardozo.” The author uses Cardozo’s achievements as minister, educator, and politician to critique the understanding – popularized after Redemption – of Reconstruction as a “tragic era.” Far from a period of failure, he emphasizes Cardozo’s tangible contributions to the enduring successes that African Americans could carry forward after Reconstruction’s demise, and into Jim Crow.

How do we know what they know? A case study of classroom-based assessment with multilingual learners

ABSTRACT We employed qualitative research methods to examine student learning in context during a teacher’s unit on 1920s-Great Depression in an 11th grade United States & Virginia History class in a standards-based setting with a high-stakes end-of-course test. We focused on four focal students (all of whom were classified as English learners at some point during their education) and collected extensive data to investigate whether these students learned and how they experienced and described their learning from regular classroom instruction. Despite receiving the same instruction, student learning, as measured by the summative assessment, differed greatly, and it was unclear if students learned the historical content. Teaching to the test (e.g., lecture-focused, didactic, narrow fact-focused instruction) did not yield improved results on the multiple-choice test. These findings problematize the use of multiple-choice testing, emphasize the need for explicit academic vocabulary scaffolds for multilingual learners, and highlight the importance of formative assessment. We argue that the conception of teacher as curricular-instructional gate-keeper needs to be expanded to curricular-instructional-assessment gate-keeper.

The Third Coming of French Critical Geographies

&lt;p&gt;Critical translation between languages requires consideration not only of the meanings of words, but also of the translator's embeddedness in worlds which assign those meanings. Especially when working with geographic texts, reflecting on the places and spatial experiences that shape our understanding and use of words can be pertinent to creating authentic translations. In translating Yann Calbérac and Marianne Morange and Cécile Gintrac's texts that present an overview of French critical geographies, the translator reflects on ways her own history in French, American, and Canadian academic spaces effects her ability to transfer the nuances of French critical geographies to an Anglophone audience.&lt;/p&gt;

Beyond Hannah Takagi Holmes: The Lives and Work of Deaf and Blind Japanese Americans

Abstract Although disability history has made progress in including excluded groups, such as LGBTQIA, BIPOC, and women, it continues to be dominated by white men. Asian Americans have only recently been included, and Asian American disability history has not yet highlighted Japanese Americans. Archives and institutions specializing in disability history center whites, and institutions specializing in Japanese American history overlook disability. Blind and especially Deaf people form the core of existing Japanese American disability history, while physically and especially intellectually disabled people are talked about, rather than sharing their experiences. Military history focuses on able-bodied Japanese American men, despite the large number of Japanese Americans wounded (and possibly disabled) in combat. Disabled Japanese Americans also broke racial, gender, and other barriers, and campaigned for civil rights and redress. But there were also ordinary people. All of them lived and continue to live in a racist, ableist society that erases Asian Americans and disabled people, and especially disabled Asian Americans. According to the Census Bureau, about 1.4 million Asians and Pacific Islanders in America identify as being disabled. It is important that disabled Japanese Americans’ stories and contributions become a valuable part of the Asian American experience.1

The New People in Canton

In 1784, American merchant and soon-to-be United States consul to China—Samuel Shaw— embarked upon a six-month journey to Canton aboard the Empress of China. Backed by the United States Government and fellow capitalists, Shaw’s voyage marked the beginning of relations between the newly independent United States and China. This paper will explore the motivations behind Shaw’s voyages by analyzing relevant primary documents alongside the context in which they were produced. Central to this paper’s arguments are Shaw’s journals , which are some of the only surviving documents from the earliest American trade delegations to China. Using these sources, this paper concludes that while trade with China was profitable, the profits involved were negligible in the context of the gruelling journey across the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Rather, this paper argues that the voyage to China was driven by a newly independent nation’s deeply rooted desire to project its sovereignty to the wider world. In other words, the Empress of China was guided by an ideal that reverberates across American history and popular imagination: independence.

Military service and health-related quality of life among gay and bisexual prostate cancer survivors: Results from the Restore-2 study

IntroductionThere are notable disparities in health-related quality of life (HRQOL) between gay and bisexual men (GBM) and heterosexual patients with prostate cancer (PCa); however, the role of past military service...

USSR FOREIGN POLICY TOWARDS CHINA (1945-50) IN THE WORKS OF AMERICAN HISTORIANS

The article is devoted to the study of the USSR's policy in China in the 40-50s of the twentieth century in the works of a number of American historians of the second half of the twentieth century, including prominent Sovietologist, long-term director of the Russian Research Center of Harvard University A.Ulam. The author compares various points of view expressed by American historians on the motives that guided Moscow in its policy towards the Chinese Communists and in general in relation to the conflict that took place in China. Several main phases of Soviet-Chinese relations during this period are defined in the interpretation of American historiography - from the policy of "limited contacts" between the USSR and the Chinese Communists in the late 1930s and early 1940s to the conclusion of the Soviet-Chinese treaty of 1950 and its impact on relations between the two countries.

Cotton Mather’s Biblical Enlightenment: Critical Interrogations of the Canon and Revisions of the Common Translation in the Biblia Americana (1693–1728)

Abstract While there exists a robust scholarship on the cultural influences and public uses of the Bible in early American history, the historical development of biblical scholarship in America remains relatively understudied. The prevalent view suggests that biblical scholarship in America had its critical awakening with the importation of German Higher Criticism to northeastern divinity schools in the nineteenth century. This essay makes a corrective intervention by looking at Cotton Mather’s unpublished Biblia Americana (1693–1728), the first comprehensive Bible commentary to be authored in British North America. More specifically, the essay examines Mather’s response to critical interrogation of the canon and the Biblia’s numerous revisions of King James translation in light of recent philological scholarship. What connects these two issues is that they both concern the “givenness” of the Bible, which, in Mather’s day, was being fundamentally challenged. Behind the discussions about the canonicity of diverse books and over how to render the Hebrew and Greek texts into modern languages always lurked fundamental questions regarding the divine authority, integrity, and perspicuity of the Bible. Examining a broad range of examples from across the Biblia, the essay demonstrates how Mather’s work defies clear-cut categorization as either precritical or critical. In response to the intellectual currents of the early Enlightenment, Mather pioneered a new type of deeply learned, historically conscious but apologetically-oriented biblical criticism in America. The Biblia clearly reflects the challenges brought on by the deepening historicization of Scripture and the destabilization of texts and meanings through a new type of criticism. More widely read in current European scholarship and in many ways more curious and daring than any other early American exegete, Mather joined the infinitely complex and open-ended quest for better translations. Moreover, he was the first in New England to seriously address hard questions about the canon of the Bible and its historical development. But he always did so with the aim of providing constructive answers to these debates that would ultimately shore up the authority of Scripture, stabilize the scriptural foundation for what Mather regarded as the core of Reformed orthodox theological beliefs, and offer improved interpretations of the biblical texts, which would lend themselves even better to devotion and illuminate for Christians, with the help of the most up-to-date scholarship, the full riches of God’s Word.

Postbellum electoral politics in California and the genesis of the Chinese exclusion act of 1882

AbstractWhy did the United States move from having nearly open borders from the 1840s to the 1870s to passing the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, the first law in American history to ban people from entering the United States solely based on race? We argue that the standard story of nativist backlash based on wage pressure explains the demand for immigration restrictions, but not their timing or their racial focus. The demand for immigration restrictions was largely inchoate until the political restructuring that followed the Civil War. Finding themselves uncompetitive in much of the country, the Democrats seized on immigration restrictions, most notably in growing California, as a wedge issue. Chinese residents were unable to vote, thus making restrictions on Chinese entry an especially effective strategy in political economy.

Oppressive Even As It Inspires

Abstract In this article, we trace the evolution of the connections between Black America and (Black) Europe since the mid-twentieth century and the study thereof. We do so through the lens of ‘Black American centrality,’ referring to the ways in which perceptions of Black America serve as an outsized reference point in European understandings of race, ‘Blackness,’ and Black (European) emancipation struggles. This allows for exploring the dilemmas that the, at times overwhelming, visibility of ‘Black America’ poses to Black Europeans, particularly during the current moment of flourishing Black European culture, politics, and scholarship. In that context, we show how both U.S.- and Europe-based scholars of Black American history and Black European history have approached Black American-European connections differently. The article concludes with suggestions for how these fields can engage with each other to develop academic approaches that account for but do not privilege the position of Black Americans within diasporic exchanges in the North Atlantic region, which is currently an underexplored area in diaspora studies.

Protection of children’s rights in the USA at the end of the 19th – on the beginning of the 20th century: historical excursion

The article analyzes the problems of protecting the rights of children in the USA, which developed at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. It was established that by the end of the 19th century. the question of protecting children has never been raised anywhere in the world. The considered case of Mary Ellen McCormack, who suffered brutal abuse from her adoptive parents, and with the help of Elbridge Jerry's lawyer, was transferred to the US Supreme Court. It was established that this precedent became the first documented case of child abuse in the history of the United States of America, and in the world as a whole.&#x0D; Tracing the history of the formation of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children "NYSPCC", which became the first organization in the world to protect the interests of children. His activities, which consisted in the legal protection of children, their material support and violation of their rights and interests, were considered. Particularly shocking were the persistent abuses in private kindergartens and homes where children were kept in unlivable conditions, while the guardians received the costs of child support from the state.&#x0D; It was emphasized that the establishment of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children "NYSPCC" was the key to changes in this area. His activities prompted the rapid formation of other societies in the United States and the adoption of the first normative legal acts that guaranteed the rights of children and provided a mechanism for their protection. Gradually, there was a transformation of public consciousness, which took over responsibility for the protection of minor children.&#x0D; Examines the creation of state departments of welfare, social services, health, and labor, which opened in all states, as well as the Federal Children's Bureau, which was established in 1912. It became the first national government office in the world, whose powers focused on ensuring better well­being of children and their mothers.&#x0D; The field of activity of the Bureau was studied, which developed a whole set of measures, which consisted in the introduction of prenatal care for women, helped them in the birth of a child, the establishment of specialized children's clinics, the introduction of the institute of patronage nurses, certified milk stations for the children's year, and raising awareness among women mothers about the measures . and the need for proper child care to address high infant mortality.&#x0D; Another area of activity of the Children's Bureau was the control over the use of child labor, as well as educational activities - the publication of books that highlighted contemporary problems in the field of violation of children's rights. The work of the bureau also affected legislative initiatives. Thus, the Keating-Owen Act of 1916, which prohibited the labor of minors, as well as the Sheppard- Towner Act of 1921, which allocated federal subsidies to state programs for the protection of motherhood and childhood, were analyzed. The following were subject to state funding: training of midwives, educational work with parents, opening of health centers, parenting courses, introduction of standards and the procedure for licensing maternity homes, collection of data on maternal and child mortality.&#x0D; The prescriptions of the Law on Social Security of 1935, which provided for the financing of a program to help dependent children, low-income families, and the creation of a child care service, which was authorized to supervise the maintenance of children's rights, were studied.

Lilian Harrison: the making of a pioneering swimmer, 1904–1923

ABSTRACT Lilian Harrison was a pioneering South American swimmer who established new records for open water distance swimming, and time spent swimming, in December 1923, as she became the first person to swim across the Rio de la Plata, from Uruguay to Argentina. Until now, her achievements have been remembered and studied as a South American history, from Harrison’s birth in Quilmes to her training in Tigre, to the tumultuous reception she received when returning to Buenos Aires after her successful swim. In this article, we situate Harrison’s achievement within the historical context of her early life and education, which was spent in an idealistic and pioneering school in Letchworth Garden City, in England. We argue that Harrison’s English schooling was a vital ingredient in her 1923 success that was generally overlooked in the press reports. Using existing newspaper sources as well as privately-held family papers which we have been fortunate to consult, we look at Harrison’s education at school, in the pool and her family upbringing. The article concludes with some reflections on the nature of global sporting histories in the early twentieth century.

Review Essay: Donald Trump, Charismatic Leadership and the “Deep State”

Abstract There have been many accounts of Donald Trump's assault on America's constitutional norms and institutions. Journalists have detailed how a real estate mogul and reality television star with no experience in public office captured the Republican Party and disrupted the regular protocols of the executive branch. Legal scholars have lamented Trump's politicization of the Justice Department breaking through the fragile guard rails put in place in the wake of the Watergate scandal. Psychiatrists have sought to diagnose Trump's politics of resentment, which they attribute to the rage and narcissism of a sociopath. Amid this frenzy John Campbell's Institutions Under Siege: Donald Trump's Attack on the Deep State provides a comprehensive study on Trump's assault on American political and government institutions. He shows persuasively that Trump's presidency had a deep and dangerous imprint on elections, the Republican Party, the bureaucracy, and fiscal policy. Critically examining Campbell’s theory and evidence, this essay considers where Trump stands in the long train of democratic crises that have occurred throughout American history, how his presidency and its provocative aftermath were a symptom of long-standing changes in the relationship between the presidency and the party system, and why the presidency itself might be a polarizing institution.

Lorien Foote. Rites of Retaliation: Civilization, Soldiers, and Campaigns in the American Civil War.

Lorien Foote. <i>Rites of Retaliation: Civilization, Soldiers, and Campaigns in the American Civil War</i>.

United States Healthcare System

Photo ID 76831545© Rawpixelimages| Dreamstime.com INTRODUCTION Today, United States citizens live in a society guided by a false consciousness.[1] The presiding culture of the United States (US) has painted a picture – a distorted and surreal mythology – that continues to be admired. This picture is characterized by conservative dogma and intolerance within the political, economic, and ideological spheres of society, leaving individuals unable to ascertain truth. US citizens are provided the inability to see reality for what it is, and instead encouraged to live by a means of pseudo-reality as described by Debord.[2] As a result, many US institutions, including the prison system and the healthcare system, have become platforms of masked discriminatory and racist practices within today’s world of “colorblindness.” The right to universal health care represents yet another opportunity for US institutions to deploy covert and underlying racist and discriminatory tactics, and continues to remain largely unacknowledged by non-minority citizens of the US, contributing to significantly higher rates of untreated health concerns and concomitant higher death rates in US minority populations. ANALYSIS To understand this assertion, it is important to start by examining the ways in which the US prison system acts as a discriminatory and racist institution. Today, African Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities account for roughly 40% of the US population, yet they comprise around 60% of the US’ total incarcerated population.[3] That is, they are disproportionately represented amongst the incarcerated. To put this in perspective, according to the American Civil Liberties Union, nearly “one in every 15 African American men [become] incarcerated, as opposed to only one in every 106 white men.”[4] Looking back to the early 1970s when Black Americans were making progress in obtaining civil rights, there was a substantial increase in the number of incarcerated Black individuals, acting as a “stealth counterweight to political and economic progress.”[5] Thus, prisons were used as a means to suppress the growing success of Black individuals, furthering the disproportionate number of incarcerated minorities. The prison system is not the only institution within the US that deploys underlying discriminatory, exploitative, and racist tactics towards American minorities. For example, there have been mortgage lending procedures that have “disproportionately exposed minority borrowers to the risky subprime loans that triggered the financial collapse of 2008 and widespread foreclosures in minority communities.”[6] Also discovered have been numerous obscure tax and insurance policies that have targeted neighborhoods with substantial minority populations.[7] There are many more examples of US institutions exploiting and discriminating based upon race, yet minority groups cannot simply avoid these tactics; that is, taking out loans and paying taxes can be essential life tasks for most individuals. Thus, as society continues to be governed by a false consciousness, true reality will indefinitely remain uncertain. This becomes clear, as even today there have been minimal studies regarding the exploration of this institutionalized racism.[8] As it is clear numerous institutions have and continue to behave in discriminatory ways, it must be considered that the US’ lack of a nationwide right to health insurance represents another means of discrimination based upon race. While at this point in the essay a discussion of the history of slavery within the US may seem extraneous, the lasting effects of slavery continue to play a key role in discrimination towards minorities, contributing to diminished resources for health insurance for minorities in the US. To understand the role of slavery in decreased access to nationwide health insurance, one must come to see the foremost factor as to why individuals do not carry it. That is, “in 2022, 64.2% of uninsured nonelderly adults said they were uninsured because coverage is not affordable, making it the most common reason cited for being uninsured.”[9]  As for the role of long-term effects of slavery, minorities, especially Black Americans, face far greater poverty than their counterparts, predominantly in places where there is a stronger connection to slavery in the past.[10] Thus, as it is commonly understood the southern half of the US to have experienced the largest impact from slavery, this would indicate the largest impact on poverty struggles as a result of slavery would be in the south. Coincidentally, as one might say, “reflecting geographic variation in income and the availability of public coverage, most uninsured people live in the South.”[11] As Black Americans have faced substantial struggles with poverty due to the lasting effects of slavery and previously exploitative southern economies, bearing in mind the primary reason for not carrying health insurance is a lack of funds, it is plain that past discrimination and racism of yesterday has set the stage for wealth and health disparities and discrimination today. That is, the “average wealth of white households in the United States [has become] 13 times as high as that of Black households.”[12] To further put this problem into context, minorities “made up 45.7% of the nonelderly US population but accounted for 62.3% of the total nonelderly uninsured population.”[13] Looking at minorities other than Black Americans, the uninsured rate for “nonelderly Hispanic (18.0%) and American Indian and Alaska Native people (19.1%) are more than 2.5 times the uninsured rates for white people (6.6%)”[14] Moreover, of the uninsured population, most of the 25.6 million nonelderly uninsured adults were from minority groups.[15] As posited, Black Americans and other minority groups’ inability to afford health insurance has been created by US citizens themselves, through past legality and support of slavery, leaving lasting effects that have made health insurance unaffordable. In return, some US citizens and their government have failed to remedy the situation, choosing instead to endorse the idea that minorities lack funds to carry health insurance by arguing they are ‘lazy,’ ‘unmotivated,’ or ‘irresponsible.’  In doing so, US citizens have further engaged in the stereotyping of minority groups as inferior through their inability to obtain health insurance. Consequently, through an unfair health insurance access system, US society has maintained a discriminatory attitude towards minority groups. Once there is a determination of a belief of inferiority, a blind eye will indefinitely turn away from discrimination within society’s governance of the false consciousness, leaving its citizens unable to ascertain reality, chiefly developing and supporting their own self interests. Thus, through the contribution and failure to remedy the poverty struggles inflicted on minority groups, including those inflicted on Black Americans largely through the past slavery in the southern US, minority groups, making up 62.3% of all uninsured nonelderly adults, have been made into the problem by society. These individuals have been labeled, ideologically transformed into ‘inferior beings’ per conservative dogma, and thus become further discriminated against with respect to their inability to obtain health insurance in the US. Considering the ethicality of the lack of a nationwide right to health insurance, one must take the stance of Mill’s Utilitarianism, which revolves around providing the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people through consequence of action.[16] First, it is clear by failing to provide a national right to health insurance, the U.S. is leaving indigent, uninsured groups, largely consisting of minorities, to find the means to fund their own insurance. This may contribute to higher and disproportionate crime rates of minority groups out of need for survival and fulfillment of basic human needs; to institutionalized racism; to false ideologies; to stereotypes wrongly placed upon minority groups; and to untreated illness. The resulting human tragedy is seen in myriad situations: minority woman facing high maternal death rates in childbirth, uninsured minority individuals being turned away from hospitals who only take those with insurance, silent suffering and untreated illnesses including high rates of diabetes and heart disease, and more recently, higher death rates and worse outcomes for minorities as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.[17] CONCLUSION Thus, as the result of a non-existent nationwide right to health insurance, the US is plainly failing to provide the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people and therefore, per Mill, the failure to provide a national right to health insurance is clearly unethical. The lack of national access for all individuals to health insurance is not only an underlying form of racism and discrimination towards American minorities, but it is unethical as well. To address this, American society must alter its picture of the distorted and surreal reality that has been painted, and shatter its lens of the pseudo-reality that shapes many individuals’ view of the world. That is, there becomes the need for a higher form, or a deeper level, of collective experiential consciousness in order for a symbiotic relationship to occur – a relationship advantageous to all simultaneously – in the biological and sociological realms. Only then can the trend of institutionalized racism and discrimination be broken, and as a part of this, only then can all individuals receive access to health insurance and related healthcare that would improve their quality of life.    - [1] Little, Daniel. “False Consciousness.” False Consciousness, www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/iess%20false%20consciousness%20V2.htm. [2] Debord, Guy. The Society of the Spectacle. Translated by Donald Nicholson-Smith, Zone Books, 1995. [3] Harris, Fredrick C., and Robert C. Lieberman. “Racial Inequality After Racism: How Institutions Hold Back African Americans.” Foreign Affairs, vol. 94, no. 2, 2015, pp. 9–20. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24483477. [4] Harris, Fredrick C., and Robert C. Lieberman. “Racial Inequality After Racism: How Institutions Hold Back African Americans.” [5] Ibid. [6] Ibid. [7] Ibid. [8] Ibid. [9] Drake, Patrick, and Jennifer Tolbert. “Key Facts about the Uninsured Population.” KFF, www.kff.org/uninsured/issue-brief/key-facts-about-the-uninsured-population/. [10] O’Connell, Heather A. “The Impact of Slavery on Racial Inequality in Poverty in the Contemporary U.S. South.” Social Forces, vol. 90, no. 3, 2012, pp. 713–34. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41682675. [11] Drake, Patrick, and Jennifer Tolbert. “Key Facts about the Uninsured Population.” [12] Harris, Fredrick C., and Robert C. Lieberman. “Racial Inequality After Racism: How Institutions Hold Back African Americans. [13] Drake, Patrick, and Jennifer Tolbert. “Key Facts about the Uninsured Population.” [14] Ibid. [15] Ibid. [16] Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism. London, Parker, Son, and Bourn, 1863. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, &lt;www.loc.gov/item/11015966/&gt;. [17] Tai, Don Bambino Geno, et al. “Disproportionate Impact of Covid-19 on Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups in the United States: A 2021 Update.” Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Dec. 2022, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8513546/#:~:text=Black%2C%20Latinx%2C%20and%20American%20Indian,children%20in%20a%20worrying%20trend.